Tuesday, May 31, 2005

China Can Sustain 8 Pct Growth - Economist - New York Times

China Can Sustain 8 Pct Growth - Economist - New York Times
May 31, 2005
China Can Sustain 8 Pct Growth - Economist
By REUTERS
Filed at 4:12 a.m. ET

BEIJING (Reuters) - China is not in danger of overheating and will be able to sustain growth of 8 percent a year for the next decade, a leading economist said on Tuesday.

Growth has averaged more than 9 percent a year since China started reforming its economy along market lines in the late 1970s and has averaged 8.4 percent in the past five years.

``It is hard to say the Chinese economy is overheated across the board,'' Yu Yongding, who heads the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences' Institute of World Economics and Politics, told a seminar in Seoul.

China's economy looked as though it might boil over a year ago because of excessive investment in sectors such as property, steel and cement.

The government responded by curbing bank lending, tightening land-use rules and raising interest rates to slow growth. Slowly but surely, the measures are working, most economists believe.

Weakening investment and industrial output will slow growth to 9.1 percent in the year through the second quarter, according to a report by the State Information Center (SIC), a top government think-tank.

First-quarter gross domestic product was 9.4 percent higher than a year earlier. In 2004, GDP expanded 9.5 percent.

The China Securities Journal on Tuesday quoted the SIC as forecasting growth in fixed-asset investment would be 20 percent in the year through the April-June quarter.

The report did not specify whether the think-tank was referring to overall fixed-asset investment, which was up 22.8 percent in the year through the first quarter, or to urban investment, which was up 25.3 percent.

``The momentum for industrial production to continue to expand is weakening, and will for certain fall from high levels,'' the newspaper quoted the think-tank as saying in its latest report.

It gave no forecast for industrial production, which rose 16 percent in the 12 months through April and was 16.2 percent higher than year-earlier levels in the first four months of 2005.

YUAN WAIT TILL 2007?

Yu, also a member of the central bank policy committee, made no mention of the yuan, which has been pegged near 8.3 per dollar for a decade.

Financial markets have been speculating feverishly that a move to unshackle the currency is imminent, not least because of growing pressure from Washington to let it float higher.

But Fitch Ratings agency said on Tuesday it did not expect Beijing to tamper with the yuan until 2007 because the government's priority was to maximise export-led growth.

``It's our view that there's really not going to be any exchange rate change in China even next year,'' James McCormack, a senior director at Fitch, told Reuters in Seoul.

A slowdown in investment would be welcome to Chinese policy makers, who are targeting full-year growth of 16 percent in overall fixed-asset investment.

Growth in urban investment, which covers everything from motorways to steel mills, has slowed from giddy rates of more than 50 percent in early 2004.

The SIC's forecast of a modest slowdown chimes with a Reuters poll of economists earlier this month that pointed to GDP growth this year of 8.8 percent.

Nobel Prize winners back booming China

Nobel Prize winners back booming China
Nobel Prize winners back booming China
By Liu Li (China Daily)
Updated: 2005-05-31 05:34



An award-winning US economist yesterday said China should ignore outside pressure and keep the yuan exchange rate stable.

1999 Nobel Laureate for Economics Robert A. Mundell kept up his consistent "no change" call at a special three-day forum--said to be Asia's biggest-in Beijing yesterday.


Nobel prize laureate Robert A. Mundell of Canada argues against a revaluation of the Chinese Renminbi (RMB) during a speech for the Nobel Laureates Beijing Forum 2005 at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing, China, Monday, May 30, 2005. 12 Nobel prize economic laureates will talk about issues ranging from the currency, longevity, politics and economic growth during the three-day event. [AP]
He was among seven other economic Nobel prize winners and five distinguished scholars who gathered to offer advice and comment on China's economic relationship with the global community.

Each gave their view of China's place in the world's economy.

If the Chinese currency were revalued, overseas direct investment will decrease and lead to more unemployment, affecting even the rest of East Asia, he said.

Wen: Listening to advice

Premier Wen Jiabao told the laureates China attaches importance to listening to global advice and opinion.

Vowing to step up efforts to solve problems facing the nation, he added: "We are confident and capable of achieving the goals set for economic and social development."

The general consensus among the economists was the booming Chinese economy is beneficial to the world-including the United States.

Robert W. Fogel, who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1993, told China Daily that there were two reasons why the global community gained from China's development.

"First, China is producing more and more goods that can be of a very high quality and at a much lower price," Fogel said.

"Secondly, China will need more goods and services from other places such as Europe and the United States," he said.

Citing American education as an example, Fogel said it had become an export industry, pointing out that at least two-thirds of his students are from abroad.

Vernon L. Smith, the 2002 winner, said the huge and growing trade between America and China greatly benefits both countries.

"By outsourcing to foreign countries, US businesses save money that is available to invest in new technologies, new jobs and remain competitive in world markets. We should let it happen," Smith said. However, "many American citizens will not now agree with that."

"Their job losses are very visible while jobs created by new technology are not yet visible. When American businesses outsource goods and services to China, they save money," Smith said.


(China Daily 05/31/2005 page1)

Monday, May 30, 2005

Japanese Expert Urges Chinese Shift on Currency; Beijing Still Hesitant - New York Times

Japanese Expert Urges Chinese Shift on Currency; Beijing Still Hesitant - New York Times
May 28, 2005
Japanese Expert Urges Chinese Shift on Currency; Beijing Still Hesitant
By KEITH BRADSHER
HONG KONG, May 27 - China should let its currency appreciate "sooner rather than later," the president of the Asian Development Bank said Friday, even as the governor of China's central bank and some senior Chinese government economists tried to damp speculation that any move would come soon.

Haruhiko Kuroda, president of the Asian Development Bank, a multilateral lending institution, told reporters that China needed to let the yuan rise to keep control of monetary policy and prevent inflation. Mr. Kuroda is regarded as one of Asia's most influential currency experts from his previous role overseeing Japan's currency policy.

While consumer price inflation has slowed in China this spring, asset prices, especially real estate prices, have been rising quickly as strong foreign investment and a soaring trade surplus have produced large flows of money into China, Mr. Kuroda noted.

But he stopped short of endorsing calls in Washington by some members of Congress for a sharp revaluation of the yuan, saying that any appreciation should occur gradually.

"China's authorities are well advised to move quickly, sooner rather than later," he said, while later adding, "The pace of exchange rate adjustment should be gradual to avoid any shock to the Chinese economy."

Mr. Kuroda declined to recommend a timetable for appreciation or a mechanism for managing a gradual appreciation. His comments buttressed the position of Treasury Secretary John W. Snow, who told the Senate Banking Committee on Thursday that the Bush administration wants to see an appreciation of the yuan, but not necessarily an immediate floating of the currency, which could result in sharp changes in its value.

But Chinese officials have shown little enthusiasm in public lately for any appreciation in the yuan.

Top officials at China's central bank, which has many Western-educated economists, have hinted at a need for appreciation over the past three years, even as other government agencies, with closer ties to exporters and real estate developers, have been more wary.

But on Friday, the governor of China's central bank, Zhou Xiaochuan, said in Seoul that China would move cautiously in adjusting the exchange rate. Some senior Chinese government economists were also quoted on Friday in the Chinese-language International Business Daily, the official mouthpiece of the Ministry of Commerce in China, as questioning whether appreciation would be good for the Chinese economy.

It would be best for the yuan exchange rate to remain stable for another two years, said Zhang Yansheng, a senior trade economist with the State Development and Reform Commission, the influential agency that oversees Chinese economic policy. He was quoted as saying that China's financial system was unprepared for the possible turbulence that loosening the exchange rate system would bring and that China's tools for managing currency risk were extremely undeveloped.

Zhou Shijian, an international trade economist with the China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission and a former trade official, was quoted as saying China should wait until speculative bets on a yuan revaluation had tapered off and only then allow the currency to rise, by a maximum of 5 percent. By contrast, American officials have reportedly suggested an increase of 10 to 15 percent.

Many currency experts outside China have warned that a gradual appreciation could invite increased flows of money into China from speculators seeking to profit on a continuing rise in the currency. But Mr. Kuroda dismissed this argument, saying that Chinese controls on capital inflows are effective, and that the incentive to bet on appreciation would dwindle as the currency moved closer to investors' perception of its true value.

Mr. Kuroda declined to say how big an increase might be needed to balance flows of money in and out of China, but he noted that with Chinese trade surpluses now surging, the needed appreciation "would be larger than people thought in the past."

Mr. Kuroda cited China's fast-rising foreign exchange reserves as evidence of the need for China to change policy. The People's Bank of China said on Thursday that these reserves grew by $49.2 billion just in the first quarter of this year, to $651.1 billion, as the central bank issued yuan in exchange for dollars in a successful effort to hold the yuan at 8.277 to the dollar, a peg maintained since the end of the Asian financial crisis in 1998.

The Asian Development Bank, based in Manila, is primarily a lending institution, and usually leaves monetary issues to the International Monetary Fund. But Mr. Kuroda was for four years Japan's vice minister of finance for international affairs, overseeing government policy on the yen in particular, and then served as special adviser to the Japanese cabinet for many of the same issues for two years before assuming his current post on Feb. 1 this year.

While the Asian Development Bank has previously endorsed currency appreciation in China in general terms, Mr. Kuroda's comments were the clearest, most detailed and most forceful by a top official of the bank so far. He started a lunch with a half-dozen foreign correspondents by making his remarks on the Chinese currency before taking any questions, and noted that he was speaking on the record.

Chris Buckley contributed reporting from Beijing for this article.

The New York Times: Search

The New York Times: Search
May 29, 2005
The China Scapegoat
By NICHOLAS D. KRISTOF
Beijing

The most important diplomatic relationship in the world is between the U.S. and China. It's souring and could get much worse.

Alas, the U.S. is mostly to blame for this. And the biggest culprit of all is the demagoguery of some Democrats in Congress.

There are plenty of legitimate reasons to be angry with China's leaders, but its trade success and exchange rate policy are not among them. The country that is distorting global capital flows and destabilizing the world economy is not China but the U.S. American fiscal recklessness is a genuine international problem, while blaming Chinese for making shoes efficiently amounts to a protectionist assault on the global trade system.

In fact, China's pegged exchange rate has brought stability to Asia, and the Chinese boom has tugged Japan out of recession and increased prosperity worldwide. In recent years, China has supplied almost one-third of the growth in the global economy (measured by purchasing power), compared with the 13 percent that came from the U.S.

Moreover, the U.S. has a history of offering Asia economic advice that proves awful. U.S. pressure helped produce Japan's disastrous bubble economy and aggravated the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis. So when American officials urge an adjustment in the yuan exchange rate, the Chinese should keep a hand on their wallets.

Over the last five years, President Bush has done an excellent job in managing relations with China - it's one of his very few successes in foreign policy - but lately he has engaged in protectionism. This month he reimposed quotas on certain Chinese textiles, and the Treasury warned China that it had better adjust its exchange rate or else.

Mr. Bush abandoned his principles because he was under attack from Democrats waving the bloody shirt of lost jobs. Sure, China's cheap yuan has cost us manufacturing jobs - but it has also led to a flood of Chinese capital to America, keeping interest rates low. If we blame China for lost American jobs in making shirts, we should credit it for new American jobs in banking and construction.

Americans are also unfair in accusing China of not stopping North Korea's nuclear program. The reality is that the North Koreans don't listen to the Chinese about anything, and many on each side look down on the other. Privately, some Chinese dismiss the North Koreans as "Gaoli bangzi" or Korean hillbillies. And fortified by a bit of liquor, North Koreans denounce Chinese as unscrupulous, money-grubbing traitors. Whenever I meet North Koreans, I tell them that the Chinese government doesn't like me - and my status soars.

China has been pushing hard in the last two years for a negotiated solution to the North Korean crisis, and it at least has a coherent policy on North Korea. That's more than you can say for the Bush administration.

One of the biggest risks for U.S.-China relations is the - very outside - chance that President Bush will order a military strike on the North Korean nuclear complex at Yongbyon. Most experts say that the resulting radiation leakage would probably not harm nearby countries, and in any case South Korea and Japan would be more at risk than China. But any hint that radiation had reached the Chinese coast would provoke anti-American fury across China.

There's a third big danger for U.S.-China relations, and this one is Beijing's fault: China's schools teach hatred of Japan, resulting in last month's street demonstrations in which Chinese protesters screamed slogans such as "Japanese must die."

The next act in the drama will unfold at sea. Japanese ships may start exploring disputed waters for oil and gas in the late summer or fall, perhaps with military escorts. China's leaders will then be under tremendous popular pressure to send China's own military vessels to block what Chinese will see as an armed Japanese incursion. And then Japan will ask the U.S. for help under the U.S.-Japan security treaty. ...

In the past, President Jiang Zemin protected the U.S.-Chinese relationship. But many Chinese scorned him as "qin Mei," or soft on the U.S. The new president, Hu Jintao, seems much less likely to go out on a limb to preserve good relations with the U.S.

So it's time for Americans to take a deep breath. Poisonous trade disputes with China will only aggravate the risks ahead, strengthen the hard- liners in Beijing and leave ordinary Chinese feeling that Americans are turning into China-bashers. Sadly, they'll have a point.

E-mail: nicholas@nytimes.com

Saturday, May 28, 2005

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???-??-?????????????美国紧逼人民币升值意欲何为

老任

2005年05月29日10:42 【字号 大 中 小】【留言】【论坛】【打印】【关闭】


  美国政府和国会联手对中国施压

  近来,美国逼迫人民币升值一步紧似一步。5月27日,美国财政部长约翰·斯诺对中国发出了迄今为止最为强烈的警告。在美国参议院银行事务委员会举行的国际货币和汇率政策听证会上,斯诺说,他对中国迟迟不将人民币升值感到失望。中国必须并且已经能够改变僵硬的人民币汇率政策。斯诺没有具体说明他所希望的人民币升值的幅度。但是,他警告说,小幅的象征性升值是不够的。

  10天前,斯诺向美国国会提交了一份名为“国际经济及汇率政策”报告。这份报告要求中国在6个月内调整人民币汇率。虽然报告没有直接认定中国操纵货币以获取贸易优势。但是,斯诺明确表示,中国必须尽快调整和美元挂钩的人民币汇率,来更好地反映经济的基本状况。他说:“我们的报告对中国很明确的表示,如果你现在准备调整汇率,那么,你是在采取积极步骤自己这样做;如果中国不能这样, 那么,在我们准备下一份报告时将处于非常为难的境地。” 这份报告警告中国,如果到今年10财政部递交下一份货币行为报告的时候中国方面还没有放松人民币汇率政策的话,中国将会被认定为“贸易操纵者”。就在该报告提交两天后,斯诺又任命了一位中国事务特使——现年56岁的奥林·韦辛顿。他将主要负责与中国商讨人民币汇率和金融市场改革的相关事务。

  美国一些国会议员更是推波助澜。他们声称,中国保持人民币的低汇率是为了促进中国产品在美国市场上的销售。 来自工业州密西根的民主党参议员施塔贝诺说,中国的不公平贸易正给美国经济带来损害,造成数百万美国人失业。施塔贝诺 说,中国操纵汇率违反了国际货币基金组织以及世界贸易组织的规则。 他还说:“中国的汇率政策违反了世界贸易组织的本意,从法律上看可以认为是为出口产品提供非法补贴以及对进口实施非法关税。”

  来自纽约的民主党参议员舒默指责中国希望享有自由贸易的好处,却不愿意承担自由贸易的责任,他要求布什政府采取报复性行动。 他还扬言,针对中国持续保持对美国的贸易顺差,参众两院都考虑对中国采取惩罚性措施。美国国会前些时候通过提案,称中国如果不改变货币政策,国会将就是否将中国认定为“货币操纵者”进行表决。而其结果可能对中国施以27.5%的惩罚性关税。

  美国媒体再炒“中国经济威胁论”

  美国媒体也不甘寂寞,纷纷借机炒作。美国之音报道说,根据“美中经济和安全审议委员会”的最新研究报告,在1989年到2003年这14年里,美国对中国的贸易逆差增加了20倍,从1989年的62亿美元增加到2003年的1240亿美元,2004年估计将超过1500亿美元。与此同时,在这14年里,随着贸易逆差的冲天而上,美国总共损失了150万个工作机会。

  美国经济政策研究所国际项目主任斯科特认为,美中贸易给美国带来的负面影响大于正面影响,尤其是在过去的14年里导致美国丧失了150万个工作机会。他指出,美国向中国的产业转移现在已经不仅仅是劳动密集型产业,高科技行业也加入了这股潮流。中国现在对美国的产品出口中,高科技产品的增加已经快于低价值劳动密集型产品的增长。

  美国媒体指出,其实受到中国经济崛起冲击的并不仅仅是美国。从中国大陆的近邻香港、台湾、日本、韩国到东南亚,从欧洲到澳大利亚、以至非洲和拉美,到处都可以看到中国的影子。

  美国企图制造第二个“广场协议”

  历史是一面镜子。上世纪80年代,在经历了20多年的高速增长之后,日本跃升为仅次于美国的第二经济大国。由于美国和日本之间的贸易赤字不断扩大,美日贸易摩擦日益加剧。美国于是想方设法逼迫日元升值。

  1985年9月22日,美国财长及中央银行行长会同英、法、德(前西德)、日四国财长和央行行长密会于纽约广场饭店,签约降低美元对日元和欧洲货币的比价,史称“广场协议”。协议要求以各国联合干预的方式促成美元对日元、马克贬值,力求借此扭转美日之间巨额贸易逆差。此协议一经签订,日元在3个月内就从240日元兑1美元上升到200日元兑1美元,到1988年甚至戏剧性地攀升至120日元兑1美元的高位。到1996年,日元升值至的87日元兑1美元的最高位。

  当时,谁也不会料及,“广场协议”给日本经济的发展施加了“魔咒”。 从此,日本又逐次经历了痛苦的经济泡沫爆发、崩溃、通货紧缩乃至一蹶不振的长期停滞。撇开经济从高潮到衰退背后的制度性因素,无可否认,“广场协议”带动的日元大幅升值是日本经济发生转折最直接的祸首。 此后,日本经济停止了增长,美国经济却获得了持续增长。

  2003年2月西方七国财长会议召开之际,当时的日本财务相盐川正十郎向其他6国提交了与1985年针对日元的"广场协议"类似的提案,以逼迫人民币升值。但最终该提案被否决。

  如今,中国陷入了对美贸易摩擦的困境之中。而美国的对华贸易赤字远远大于当年对日贸易赤字。因此,美国把矛头完全转向了中国。有评论指出,中国今天所面临的形势恰似上个世纪80年代前半期的日本。如若不设法改变现状,就将出现对中国而言的"广场协议"。但是,今天中国民族工业的竞争能力,与当时的日本却不可同日而语。因此,如果美国的企图得逞,中国产业界很可能面临悲剧命运。



来源:人民网 (责任编辑:王欣)

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金融体系未准备好 人民币汇率最好再稳定两年


NEWS.SOHU.COM   2005年05月29日09:59  搜狐财经


  中国再次表示,在人民币汇率改革问题上,将持审慎态度,因为这类经济改革或将带来不确定性。

  另外,中国国家发改委官员表示,人民币汇率最好再稳定两年,因中国经济体制和金融体系尚未准备充分。该官员指出政府部门应在金融和外汇体制改革方面做大量工作,同时企业也应该做好防范汇率风险的准备。

  中国目前面对美国为首的国际强大压力,要求北京政府放弃已经实行10多年的人民币汇率紧盯美元的货币政策,让人民币升值。

  前日,美国财政部长斯诺重申,他相信中国在10月之前就会采取措施,放宽人民币汇率弹性。斯诺还声称,如果中国拖延采取行动,可能会受到美国的贸易报复。

  美国财政部上周公布的对国际货币市场的评估报告,并没有将中国列为货币操控国。斯诺周四在参院就此报告做证时,因此受到议员严厉的批评。美国金融界也有要求斯诺下台的声浪。

  美国参众两院日前都提案,如果中国在六个月内不重估人民币,将要求布什政府对中国出口到美国的商品征收27.5%的惩罚关税。

  昨日,中国人民银行行长周小川在首尔与韩国及日本央行行长举行会议时表示,中国在进行经济改革时将保持审慎,因这类改革或将带来不确定性。他说,改革的步伐过快或过慢,都将为中国带来严重后果。

  周小川本月24日在2005年中国经济高峰会上谈及汇率和利率问题时也曾指出,利率的调整暂时没有计划,这要看通货膨胀的数字来确定。至于美国和欧洲要求人民币升值的问题,现在还没有什么新的看法。

    他在会上回答中国媒体的提问时还强调:“哪有一两天就出新闻的。人民币汇率改革是个‘慢活儿’!”此前,他在多个场合都表达了人民币汇率改革将有条不紊地进行的观点。

  另一方面,中国《国际商报》昨日援引发改委宏观经济研究院外经所所长张燕生的话称,“中国的金融和外汇供求关系尚未形成市场化运作,另一方面可以提供的外汇头寸风险管理和工具以及整个外汇监管体系都非常不发达,特别当国际游资涌入中国试图获得人民币升值的巨大收益时,更不能贸然行事。”

   张燕生说,只有具备了一系列相关人民币升值的配套汇率政策和相应的货币、税收、贸易政策,方能把人民币升值对中国经济的影响控制在最小范围内。

  报道还援引中国社科院世经所国际贸易研究室主任宋泓的话称,人民币升值是长期趋势,但应采取“小幅长期渐进”的方式。当务之急是将现有的外汇储备更多地投入到支持国内企业建设中去,减轻人民币升值压力。

  中国国际贸易学会常务理事周世俭则认为,人民币汇率政策需要调整,但是他也强调汇率调整绝不是近期大幅升值,而是“选择时机,窄幅波动”,即将波幅控制在3%-5%,最好是3%,最多不能超过5%。


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Tuesday, May 10, 2005

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外汇改革助推QDII 方案设计接近尾声

21世纪经济报道  2005-05-08 16:29:12




  本报记者 方家喜 北京报道
  
  “有关合格境内机构投资者(QDII)制度,目前已基本完成方案论证和制度设计。”日前,国家外汇管理局一位官员向本报记者透露。
  没有公开的QDII制度将会是一种什么样的模式?为实施这样的模式,制度的设计者考虑了哪些因素?
  
  务求两个“严格”
  4月27日,在“中国金融高层论坛”上,外管局资本项目管理司司长邹林在题为《QDII投资境外资本市场的前景与模式选择》演讲中,似乎又暗示了管理层的若干思路。
  据邹林的说法,外汇局会同有关部门一直在积极研究有关的模式选择问题。采取适当的模式考虑了许多因素,包括是否可以有效降低QDII制度可能带来的风险,是否有合格的境内机构胜任这项工作,是否会使投资者蒙受损失,对国内资本市场形成负面影响,等等。
  邹林透露,QDII的实施将务求两个“严格”:一是严格机构选择,初期将本着稳妥推进、宁缺勿滥的原则,在机构中严格筛选。
  随着市场开放程度的不断扩大,可考虑逐渐放宽有关要求限定运作方式和募集资金币种。QDII在规定时间内,按批准规模在境内公开发行封闭式基金。境内机构和个人可通过购买有关基金,实现投资于境外资本市场的目的。
  初期,基金以外币发行,境内机构和个人以自有外汇购买,视发展情况放开购汇限制。限制投资品种初期,投资品种初步设想为固定债券视发展情况逐步放开权益类产品及相关衍生品。
  二是严格管理制度,建立境内托管人制度,进行专户管理。控制投资规模,分步实施。
  初期,投资额度将受到严格控制,规模不会很大,因而不会分流国内资本市场资金。中国股市的问题并非根源于资金不足,因此不宜把QDII制度当作调控股市资金面和涨跌的政策。
  
  QDII已有伏笔
  对于外管局官员最近对QDII的论述,分析人士表示,管理层择机推出QDII似乎已是眼前的事。不过资本市场,特别是股市应该坦然面对。
  “没什么可怕的,其实放松资本流出的政策一直在陆续出台。”外汇管理局一位人士对记者说,以前外汇流入的优惠政策将逐步取消,而限制资本流出的管制也将逐步放松。
  他指的是2004年放松“资本流出”的一系列政策。
  2004年11月16日,央行发布《个人财产对外转移售付汇管理暂行办法》,从12月1日起,国家将放松移民将合法财富转移海外的限制。
  11月17日,央行又调整了境内居民个人自费留学购汇政策,自费留学换汇进一步放宽:
  从2005年12月1日起,境内居民自费留学到银行直接换汇最多可达两万美元。并且,自费留学生的范围也由正规大学本科以上(含本科)扩大至正规大学预科以上(含预科)的自费留学人员。
  在上述政策之前,2004年8月份,保监会和央行联合发布了《保险外汇资金境外运用管理暂行办法》,允许保险公司、保险资产管理公司从事保险外汇资金的境外投资。
  同时,针对境内企业私自划拨资产到海外上市,外管局与商务部也在合作起草相关的措施,特别是制定与“换股”兼并等股权投资有关的政策法规。
  对于以上政策,分析认为,新汇率政策频出明显释放出了汇率改革的步伐已经加快的信号。事实上,大家一直关注的实施境内合格机构投资者制度(QDII)正在步步靠近之中。
  
  外汇改革题中之义
  据记者的观察,管理层对QDII的推出,有着现实的条件和依据。
  目前中国企业与个人手中已经持有数量可观的外汇,但国内外汇投资品种非常短缺,因此,已经有居民通过地下钱庄进行境外投资。
  另外,中国长期以来,很多措施集中在如何防止流出,鼓励境外资金流入。但要平衡国际收支,不光要单方面地抑制资金流入,也要有流出。而QDII的实施,将是对资金流出管制的一个突破。同时,也是推进资本项目可兑换的放开。
  分析人士表示,从更广意义上来说,QDII的推出是资本项目实现完全可兑换应有之义。推进资本项目可兑换是未来一段时期内,包括外管局在内各个部门的一个工作目标。
  外管局2004年底对资本项目管理现状进行了评估,将43种项目分成了已实现兑换、较少限制兑换、较多限制兑换、严格管制兑换四类,其中较少限制和已实现兑换的项目已达到22项。
  一位外管局官员最近就表示,“我们的目标是在未来不长时期内(对所有项目)实现基本可兑换,未来相当长时间内实现完全可兑换。
  国家外汇管理局副局长魏本华在接受记者采访时表示:“近期外管局正在研究和将要出台的资本项目管理政策,主要集中在资本流出方面。”
  他表示,目前我国的国际收支情况发生了变化,我国已经不属于资本短缺的国家。外汇储备增加过快,导致货币投放量过大,不利于货币政策发挥作用。因此,没有必要鼓励资本的流入而限制资本的流出,应该保持资本流入和资本流出的平衡。对资本流入不应该再给予各种鼓励政策,而应实行国民待遇

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《经济》杂志:专家疾呼人民币不能在压力下升值


NEWS.SOHU.COM   2005年05月10日13:50  《经济》杂志


  文/左小蕾

  如果现在人民币升值,我们的经济是否能够承受巨大的过度升值的压力。

  为什么人民币不能在压力下升值?当前这不是一个纯理论问题,也不是讨论人民币汇率机制长期如何改革的问题。

  国际经验证明,在当前美元贬值的国际金融环境下,特别是在国际“热钱”都在不遗余力地投机人民币升值的压力下,只要人民币有任何风吹草动,只要人民币管理浮动的区间稍一扩大,人民币币值必然马上冲到区间上限。人们会马上期望人民币还要进一步升值,热钱会更多地流入。

  巨额“热钱”的推波助澜,人民币升值的预期也会水涨船高,会不以人们的意志为转移地过度升值。1997年亚洲金融危机的时候,泰铢和菲律宾比索都一度贬值100%,印尼卢比曾贬值500%-600%,贬到银行挤兑,贬到社会暴乱,贬到政权更迭。

  中国的经济是否具备承受这样冲击的能力?

  中国经济付得起10年经济停滞的代价吗

  首先要应对的直接冲击是经济的四大需求之一——进出口。如果人民币过度升值,如升值20%-30%——在压力下升值更高也不是不可能的。如果人民币升值30%,则意味着我们的出口一下子增加了30%的成本,我们进口的所有东西的价格都一下子便宜了30%。突然丧失价格竞争力,出口相关行业和公司马上失去比较优势,出口出不去,产销不平衡,存货增加,资金周转不灵,规模小一点的企业恐怕立即出现生存危机。

  所有进口产品一下子便宜了许多,肯定会出现大量对进口产品的需求,反过来也冲击那些提供国内市场需求的行业和厂商。中国年进出口已经超过万亿美元,成为世界上仅次于美国和德国的第三大贸易主体。中国出口产品的结构是需要调整的。但是按照目前的统计口径,60%以上对外依存度的中国经济在总体上一下子可能调整得过来吗?我们的经济在短期内顶得住吗?

  1985年,日本在广场协议的压力下开始日圆升值,就像美联储主席格林斯潘先生在最近召开的G20国银行家会议上提到的那样,对汇率变化的预测,不会比掷骰子50%对50%的结果更好,因为人们不具备预测货币需求和供给变化的能力。换句话说,汇率的准确市场均衡水平不可能人为地准确判断。因此日圆的升值就从1美元比200多日圆的水平以“飞流直下三千尺”的气势,升至1美元兑78日圆的水平,这个汇率水平绝对不是市场的均衡,百分之百是过度升值所致。而过度升值无疑是使以出口为导向的日本经济近10年一蹶不振、付出近10年经济衰退的惨重代价的重要原因之一。中国经济付得起10年经济停滞的代价吗?

  金融体系有不稳定的因素

  更严重的是,我们的经济体系中的显形和隐形的债务。特别是金融体系中的几个大窟窿,几万亿正在处理和必须马上处理的仅仅来自各大银行的不良资产,还有信用社、城市商业银行和股份制银行的不良资产。另一个需要面对的大窟窿是证券公司,一个南方证券就是几十亿上百亿的中央银行再贷款,整个证券市场需要的再贷款很可能是一个巨大的未知数。

  如果不及时把这些窟窿堵起来,银行系统仍然低资本充足率高不良资产,面对一年后的外国金融机构的竞争,恐怕不是靠“国有银行”这块政府信誉的招牌就能“平安无事”的。只要外国银行靠其国际市场稳健的经营经验和优质服务,特别是低风险的资产状况,争取到现在的20%的高端客户中的四分之一,中国的银行就可能失去现有存款的四分之一。如果到时候中国的银行的存贷差达不到这个要求,就可能会发生挤兑的危机。还有证券行业的窟窿,不把挪用的客户保证金和国债回购以及委托理财造成的客户亏损用不留道德风险的方式处理好,证券行业可能成为仅次于银行的金融风险甚至金融危机的策源地。

  中国金融系统稳定的重要条件之一是高储蓄。经济理论表明,高速增长依赖着高储蓄率。有研究表明,经济起飞阶段大约是20-25年。各国的高储蓄率基本发生在这段期间内。在经济起飞大约25-32年之后,各国的高储蓄率无不呈下降趋势。欧美各国目前的储蓄率只有15%左右。日本和亚洲四小龙的高储蓄率也就维持了25-32年。如果我们把1980年当作经济起飞的起点,中国的高储蓄率能够维持多少年?那么按照世界各国的规律,中国的高储蓄率可以延续25-30年左右,那么到了2010年前后,中国的储蓄率将发生明显下滑趋势。换句话说,留给我们的高速经济发展的黄金岁月已经不多了。如果储蓄率一旦下滑,脆弱的银行体系就将承受前所未有的压力。这也是为什么当今年银行储蓄连续7个月下降时会出现巨大的担忧,以及为什么深层次的银行体制改革如此重要。

  近期国内正面临潜在的金融风险,面临对复杂而艰巨的金融体制的改革。金融体系改革,需要稳定的内部和外部的金融环境。人民币的暂时稳定,将为金融体系的改革争取时间。面对2006年金融业的开放,我们剩下的时间不多了。

  不必认为人民币有升值的压力

  其实细分析来自国外人民币升值的压力,日本为了更大的利益嚷嚷得比较大声,但实际中日贸易中日本是顺差,他们没有太大的施加压力的筹码。欧洲未必欢迎中国更大比例持有欧元,因为会导致欧元进一步升值。美国政府实际也在权衡人民币升值对美国经济的利弊,人民币真要改变汇率机制,美元会进一步贬值,对美国未必是好事。所以美国的学界政界也有许多不同的声音。如果对我们自己、对大多数人都没有好处,压力从何而来?我们大可不必认为人民币有升值的压力。

  “热钱”是投机性的资本。热钱是在人民币被低估的舆论推动下流入境内的。所以由于热钱推高的外汇增长,不能算“外汇储备”,当然也不能作为人民币低估的根据。只要让这笔“热钱”不结汇进入中央银行,而是直接进入任何商业银行的外汇账户,外汇储备大幅增长的“幻觉”就会消失。“热钱”效应就不攻自破了。

  特别要注意的是,一旦金融体系的问题显示出来,或者政府开始全面理顺金融体系中的各种问题,或者经济结构中的某些薄弱环节暴露出来,这些“热钱”可能是出逃最快的。对此,我们必须保持清醒的头脑,热钱的流入并不是最危险的事情,最危险的是“热钱”的流出。一有风吹草动,大进就变成大出,他们的出逃可能成为金融危机的导火索。这一幕在亚洲金融危机的时候就在东南亚各国以多米诺骨牌效应重复上演。倘偌如此,中国经济就要承受我们最不希望看到的“大起大落”,带来的后果就不是简单的“硬着陆”的问题了。

  所以,目前保持人民币的不完全可兑换也是中国金融体系稳定的另一重要条件。至少可以让“热钱”进来容易出去难,我们暂时可以有惊无险。

  在目前的内外经济形势下,人民币升值未必能解决一些发达国家提出的劳动力套利的问题,也未必能改变外部各种利益聚集起来的人民币升值预期,未必能统筹国内的各种不平衡,所以当前人民币升值可能不是解决目前外部问题和内部问题的最佳方案。就像当年亚洲金融危机时人民币不能在巨大压力下贬值一样,人民币现在不能在压力下升值。人民币汇率暂时的稳定对中国和国际社会可能是一个双赢的局面。(详情请见《经济》杂志5月号)


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Monday, May 09, 2005

Economists warn of coming Chinese meltdown - Business - Business - theage.com.au

Economists warn of coming Chinese meltdown - Business - Business - theage.com.au
Economists warn of coming Chinese meltdown
By Hamish McDonald
Beijing
May 9, 2005

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Chinese officials will not heed Western calls for a substantial revaluation or float of the yuan, says Hong Kong-based economist Jim Walker.
Photo: AFP
China is a classic emerging economy heading for a bust, say experts in Hong Kong.

For Jim Walker, the chief economist at CLSA Asia-Pacific Markets in Hong Kong, the signs are coming thick and fast.

At Crown Casino, money for gambling junketeers this Chinese new year was double the amount Asian high-rollers put down last year.

In Shaanxi, an inland province in China usually in a labour surplus, minimum wages have been raised 30 per cent.

At Disneylands around the Pacific rim, signs are going up in Chinese. "They went up in Portuguese a year before the (Brazilian) rial crashed," the Scottish economist notes wryly.

All these, Walker thinks, point to China coming to the late stage of its frenetic economic cycle, one characterised by massive oversupply of a currency so long pegged to the US dollar that its holders treat it as the same.

Across town at investment bank Morgan Stanley, China-watching economist Andy Xie also sees an economic machine speeding towards a crash like the Asian meltdown in 1997.

"China is an export and investment-driven model, and the connection between exports and investment is basically the state banking system that takes the money earned by exports and puts that into investment, regardless of returns," Xie says.

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AdvertisementNeither of these two economists expect China's leaders to respond in more than a token way to the invitation by many Western financial chiefs to take the medicine early in the form of a currency revaluation.

Walker says the signals are that Chinese officials agree they must placate baying trade protectionists in the US and Europe, set off by the 35 per cent surge in China's first-quarter exports.

But he thinks the response will be disappointing for most critics - perhaps a 1 per cent widening in the band around the peg of 8.28 yuan to the US dollar maintained for the past 10 years.

Xie says Beijing will stall, keeping expectations of a yuan float or revaluation alive so that speculative inflows from overseas Chinese continue, but trying to defer the evil day as long as possible, in his view for another two years. "If China appreciates the currency like other people are urging, China will eventually have a financial crisis just like in South-East Asia," he said.

These views are in contrast to some others. On Friday, for example, ING Bank's team in Hong Kong said China could reform its exchange rate within three months. "Our change of view that the initial yuan revaluation will be big stems from the heightened threat of loss of market access," the bank said.

Many see China as an emerging super-economy, but Xie and Walker see it as a developing country with classic weaknesses.

Xie says: "Look at what happened in South-East Asia 10 years ago, or in Latin America before that. Currency value depends on competitiveness and also financial health. In emerging economies, you cannot maintain financial health, so periodically you have . . . an over-expansion of money supply, and you eventually have currency depreciation."

Walker sees China hitting a wall in the form of a labour shortage - not the publicised reluctance of inland Chinese to serve as factory fodder, but in supply gaps for skilled workers and managers. Newspapers in Hong Kong and South-East Asia are packed with ads for supervisory or technical jobs in China.

Walker said that looming, perhaps in 2007 when vanishing profits finally caused a contraction in business activity, would be China's first serious slowdown in years.

"They've had upswings and downswings before, but they've all been state sector-led . . . This time round there will be bad debts accruing to private sector companies and the banks will react much more differently to that," he said.

Fuel for the overheated economy comes from the central bank's conversion of fast-growing foreign reserves, which hit $US610 billion ($A785 billion) last year, into yuan and then trying to "sterilise" the monetary effect by forcing local banks to buy low-yield bonds.

As two New York University economists, Nouriel Roubini and Brad Setser, pointed out in a paper last week, the central bankers' efforts had been only partially successful, and limited their ability to apply interest-rate remedies to excessive demand.

Like others, they found an economy driven by cheap inputs, such as credit, energy and land, rather than productivity growth.

They say China must switch to an economic model more driven by domestic demand.

Revaluation would help do that, but at the price of short-to-medium-term pain. Xie said that was the hidden aim of many currency reform advocates. "They don't believe the political system will tolerate real financial reforms unless it is forced to."

"Senior leaders know what's going on," he said.

"What they hope to do is accumulate as much capital as possible, as many people getting rich as possible, so when you need to make a dramatic overhaul of the economy the country is still stable because enough people have jobs."

U.S. Getting Tough on Chinese Currency - Yahoo! News

U.S. Getting Tough on Chinese Currency - Yahoo! News
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U.S. Getting Tough on Chinese Currency By MARTIN CRUTSINGER, AP Economics Writer
Sun May 8,12:42 PM ET



Two years of quiet diplomacy by the Bush administration did not persuade China to change its currency system. So the United States now is turning up the volume, even enlisting the help of financial heavyweights such as Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan.

Critics contend it will take more than just talk to force China to scrap a system they blame for America's soaring trade deficit and the loss of nearly 3 million U.S. manufacturing jobs over the past five years.

Since 1994, the Chinese have pegged their currency, the yuan, to the U.S. dollar in a narrow range in which 8.28 yuan will buy $1.

American manufacturers say this system has undervalued the yuan by as much as 40 percent. The weaker yuan makes Chinese goods cheaper in the United States and American products pricier in China.

The administration has hoped its diplomatic efforts since 2003 would convince Beijing that it should allow market forces to set the yuan's value. U.S. officials also have said they understood China needed time to prepare for such a switch.

But the administration suddenly toughened its rhetoric last month. Treasury Secretary John Snow let it be known the United States now feels that China has made all the preparations necessary and could switch immediately to a flexible exchange rate.

In support, Greenspan told a congressional committee that China's current system represented an increasing threat, including higher inflation, to the Chinese economy. Also making that point are economists at the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.

Explaining the shift in tactics, critics of the go-slow approach cite the political fallout from the U.S. trade deficit. It hit a record $617 billion last year, including a $162 billion deficit just with China, the highest ever with a single country.

Trade experts believe that imbalance with China could top $240 billion this year because American manufacturers of textiles and other products are facing a flood of Chinese imports.

The Senate last month voted by a surprisingly wide margin, 67-33, to allow a vote on a bill that would impose 27.5 percent across-the-board tariffs on Chinese imports to the United States unless China changes its currency system.

One of the measure's sponsors, Sen. Charles Schumer (news, bio, voting record), D-N.Y., said the vote showed "stunningly how strong the sentiment" in the Senate for such a change in Beijing.

After that vote, the free-trade administration stepped up its own campaign, concerned that protectionist legislation could pass.

The administration's effort has sent rumors throughout global currency markets that China could be on the brink of letting is currency rise in value.

Speculation only grew last week when the Treasury said a delegation of officials from China's central bank would meet in Washington on Monday with a Treasury team to discuss technical issues involved in moving to a floating currency.

Treasury officials sought to play down expectations that China could announce a switch on Monday. Snow left no doubt on Friday that Washington is anxious to see change.

"They have committed to moving to a flexible exchange rate. ... I hope they will act soon," Snow said in a CNBC interview.

Chinese officials continue to stress that obstacles such as a weak banking system require they take more time before making a switch.

U.S. manufacturers are worried that China will continue to stonewall as America's trade deficit soars and more U.S. manufacturing jobs are lost.

For that reason, they are lobbying the administration to single out China as a country that is intentionally manipulating its currency to gain unfair trade advantages. The administration is required by law to report to Congress on this matter twice a year. It has yet to brand China as a currency manipulator.

Frank Vargo, vice president for international affairs at the National Association of Manufacturers, said the next report, expected shortly, must cite China. That could lead to a World Trade organization case brought by the United States against China.

While the administration rejected that approach last year in favor of using diplomatic channels, Vargo said he believed U.S. officials now favor a tougher line.

"The administration has made a major shift by saying the time for China to act is now," Vargo said. "The administration has really changed the game here and we are pleased with that."

___

On the Net:

Treasury Department: http//www.treasury.gov

National Association of Manufacturers: http://www.nam.org



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主页 > 国际金融报 > 第七版 金融论坛 2000年04月13日

中国外汇市场发展历程的回顾与展望




何尤华

  1994年初,中国外汇体制进行了重大改革,其主要内容是,实行外汇调剂市场汇率和官方汇率的并轨,取消外汇留成制,在银行结售汇的基础上建立银行间外汇市场,实行以市场供求为基础的、单一的、有管理的浮动汇率制。改革后的实践证明这次外汇体制改革是非常成功的:外汇供给持续大于需求,人民币汇率稳中有升,国家外汇储备不断增加。但与成熟的外汇市场相比,中国银行间外汇市场还处于发展的初级阶段,其在市场交易工具、市场活跃程度和市场竞争方面都存在着较大的发展空间。
一、中国外汇市场发展历程的回顾
在建立社会主义市场经济过程中,中国的经济改革从微观环节的放权让利入手,旨在改进微观激励机制,进而放松资源配置制度,形成价格和资源配置制度的双轨制。在此基础上,再推进宏观经济政策环境的改革。中国的外汇管理体制改革也是按照这一模式进行的。人民币汇率改革采取了“在计划内调整,让计划外生长”的双轨过渡方式。当官方汇率不断被调整到接近于外汇调剂汇率水平,市场价格的比重越来越大时,人民币汇率的市场化改革(双价并轨)就不再具有很大的风险。与人民币汇率改革相适应的外汇市场改革,也是在这样的渐进性改革中不断得到发展的机会。1979年中国实行外汇留成制度,企业拥有一定数量的留成外汇。但企业的外汇供需不平衡,从而客观上需要进行外汇留成余缺的调剂,由此产生了外汇调剂业务。1980年在北京、上海和广州等12个城市开办了外汇调剂业务;1986年外商投资企业之间也可以进行外汇调剂业务;1988年为了配合外贸体制改革,上海率先开办外汇调剂公开市场,随后全国主要城市相继建立外汇调剂公开市场,外汇调剂范围进一步扩大,企业之间通过外汇调剂中心可以进行外汇调剂,从此外汇调剂市场得到迅速发展。到1993年底,80%的外汇资源是通过外汇市场实现资源配置的。
尽管调剂市场的迅速发展较好地促进了中国外向型经济的发展,调剂汇率在较大程度上反映了人民币兑外汇的真实比价,但由于受体制和地方利益的制约,全国众多的外汇调剂市场不能实现资金的横向流动,调剂汇价参差不齐,外汇资源难以进行有效的配置,与市场经济的发展要求还有较大的差距。因此,从1994年1月1日起,中国外汇管理体制进行了重大改革,其中建立银行间外汇市场是重要内容之一。从此,中国外汇市场由带有计划色彩的外汇调剂市场发展到符合市场经济要求的银行间外汇市场的新阶段:全国外汇供求纳入统一的外汇市场,市场供求决定统一的人民币汇率,金融机构作为外汇市场的主体使外汇市场运行更加规范,更有利于中央银行的宏观调控。
在原有的外汇调剂市场的基础上建立起来的银行间外汇市场是以现代电子技术为基础、以银行和非银行金融机构为交易主体的外汇交易系统。其中介机构为总部设立于上海的中国外汇交易中心,总中心通过计算机网络与全国各地的分中心实行联网交易。1994年4月4日,中国银行间外汇市场正式启动运行。外汇市场的统一符合市场经济发展的必然要求。计划经济向市场经济的渐进性转轨和发展,要求银行间外汇市场的渐进性发展,主要表现在市场目标和交易方式的选择和交易品种的开发上。鉴于在外汇短缺的国家里进行外汇体制改革具有较大的风险,统一后的银行间外汇市场的发展必需做到松紧有度,可控自如。我国银行间外汇市场的可控性主要表现在:交易主体市场进入的可控性、外汇资金来源和流向的可控性以及中央银行的宏观调控。银行间外汇市场的有效性主要表现在:保障银行结售汇制的正常运行和央行宏观调控的有效实施、形成全国统一的市场汇率和保证外汇市场信息及时和准确传导。
与以前外汇调剂市场明显不同的是中国外汇市场在外汇体制改革后向着规范化的方向迈出了重大的一步。目前中国外汇市场分为两个层次:第一个层次是银行和客户之间的零售市场(银行与客户之间的结售汇),外汇指定银行每天根据中央银行公布的人民币兑美元等货币的中间价,在一定的浮动范围内制定对客户的挂牌价,与客户进行外汇买卖。第二个层次是银行之间的外汇交易市场(银行间外汇市场),其交易载体是中国外汇交易中心的计算机联网交易系统。目前中国外汇交易系统已连通全国37个中心城市。外汇市场交易主体必须指派外汇交易中心认可的交易员进入交易中心指定的交易场所,进行外汇买卖(随着市场的进一步发展,目前有相当一部分银行已实行远程交易)。从类似股票交易所的固定交易场所来看,外汇交易系统具有有形的特征。但是外汇交易中心是通过计算机网络进行交易的系统,这一点与国际上成熟的外汇市场相似。因此,外汇交易系统又具有无形市场的特征。
凡经中国人民银行批准设立、国家外汇管理局准许经营外汇业务的金融机构及其分支机构,均可向中国外汇交易中心提出会员资格申请,经外汇交易中心审核批准后,可成为外汇交易中心的会员,参与国内外汇市场交易。目前外汇交易系统有330多家会员,包括国有专业银行、商业银行、外资银行、城市商业银行、农村信用合作联社以及非银行金融机构。
外汇交易系统实行分别报价、撮合成交的竞价交易方式。交易员报价后,由计算机系统按照价格优先、时间优先的原则对外汇买入报价和卖出报价的顺序行进组合,然后按照最低卖出价和最高买入价的顺序撮合成交。与撮合成交方式相联系的外汇交易系统实行本外币资金集中清算。人民币实行两级清算,即各分中心负责当地会员间的清算,总中心负责各分中心的差额清算。人民币资金清算通过在中国人民银行开立的人民币帐户办理。外汇资金实行一级清算,即总中心负责各会员之间的清算,资金清算速度均为“T+1”。外汇资金清算通过中国外汇交易中心在境外开立的外汇帐户办理。
中国银行间外汇市场目前仅开设人民币兑美元、港币和日元的即期交易。1994年4月4日银行向外汇市场正式运作以来,各币种交易活跃,日均成交2亿美元左右。其中,人民币兑美元占交易总量的90%左右,港币和日元交易份额相对较小。自1994年银行间外汇市场正式运作以来,美元和港币兑人民币市场加权汇率变动相对稳定,但美元总体呈下跌态势,跌幅约5%。港币走势大体与美元相同,跌幅相差不大。日元兑人民币市场加权汇率由于受国际外汇市场美元兑日元汇率大幅波动的影响而出现上下振荡的走势。
二、中国外汇市场发展展望
与国外发达的外汇市场相比较,中国外汇市场的发展还只是处于初级阶段,今后的发展道路还很长。目前的中国外汇市场是建立在银行结售汇体制基础上的。而结售汇体制对企业的外汇买卖和银行的外汇交易都具有一定的强制性,不同层次上的外汇买卖均基于实需原则。因此,企业和银行的外汇交易都必须有真实的商业背景,外汇金融性交易还属于禁止之列。因此,目前的外汇市场交易还没有反映出全部的外汇供求状况,市场化程度还有待于进一步提高。虽然这种情况符合人民币仅仅在经常项目下实现可兑换而在资本项目下实行较为严格管制的政策要求,但在外汇管制逐步放松和金融服务自由化和全球化日益发展的大环境下,人民币在资本项下逐步放松管制进而实现完全可兑换只是时间早晚的问题。在此背景下,中国银行间外汇市场将会在以下几个方面取得长足的发展:
1.外汇市场交易工具将会不断增加,市场体系更加健全。目前中国外汇市场仅开设美元、港币和日元兑人民币的即期交易。品种有限的即期交易既难以满足市场对不同交易品种的需求,也不利于市场回避汇率变动的风险。因为,在人民币实现有管理的浮动汇率制度后,市场定价的汇率经常变动乃是一种正常现象。而成熟的外汇市场必须具有多样化的交易品种,以满足市场的多元化需求。因此,中国外汇市场从初级阶段逐步走向成熟阶段应是一个在规范化的基础上不断推出新的交易品种的过程。在市场需求的不断推动下,外汇市场交易的工具将不断增加,国际外汇市场传统的外汇交易包括外汇即期交易、外汇直接远期和外汇互换交易,在银行远期结汇的基础上,直接远期交易将会在中国银行间外汇市场率先推出,在此基础上,外汇互换交易也会逐步推出并成为外汇市场上最为重要的交易工具,在全球主要的外汇市场上,外汇互换交易已经取代外汇即期交易和外汇直接远期交易,而成为银行间外汇市场最为重要的交易工具。与此同时,外汇市场上,不同的交易币种将不断增加,如人民币兑欧元的交易。主要外国货币之间的交易,外汇拆借市场也会在外汇传统交易市场不断发展的过程中从无到有,不断壮大;外汇期货、期权等衍生交易也会有一定程度的发展。外汇市场体系日益健全,外汇市场与货币市场、证券市场等金融市场之间的关联性将不断增强。
2.外汇市场交易将更加活跃。随着外汇管制的逐步放松,纳入市场交易的外汇资金将不断增加,外汇交易将不再仅局限于实需原则,企业和银行间将会将外汇交易作为其管理外汇资金的一种运作方式,金融交易将从“原则禁止”向“原则自由”方向过渡。同时,由于外汇管制的逐步放松和外汇交易范围的拓宽,人民币汇率形成的基础将进一步拓宽,汇率水平将在更高的程度上反映出市场供求的真实变化,人民币汇率管理浮动制度的“浮动”特色将会更加明显,汇率市场程度将不断提高。
3.外汇市场竞争将不断增强。外汇管制的逐步放松和金融服务的日益自由化,在外汇市场上的一个重要表现,就是市场竞争程度的提高。市场竞争包括两个方面。其一是市场主体的竞争,主要是指外汇市场上商业银行等金融机构之间的竞争。在这种竞争过程中,中国外汇市场将会出现一部分造市者(MARKETMAKER),而一些中小银行将逐步成为价格接受者(PRICETAKER)。随着人民币国际地位的提高,国外交易主体日益看重人民币的买卖,市场竞争的主体范围将不断拓宽,竞争程度将不断提高。其二是市场中介组织之间的竞争,包括国内和国外中介机构之间的竞争。其竞争结果是,中国外汇在交易方式等方面,将日益与国际外汇市场交易惯例接轨。

《国际金融报》 (2000年04月13日第七版)

China Exchange rate evolution

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人民网>>经济>>经济专题>>经济学前沿>>银行·证券·保险 2005年04月14日18:39



博弈中的人民币汇率
清华大学经济管理学院 龚刚

  自去年美国和日本向中国提出人民币升值的要求以后,人民币汇率问题再次引起世界的关注。本文试图讨论三个问题:第一,汇率及汇率制度选择的经济学原理;第二,人民币汇率的过去和现在;第三,人民币汇率在未来所面临的挑战。



  汇率及汇率制度的选择—国家间的搏弈

  汇率制度基本上可以分为两种:一种是固定汇率制度,而另一种是浮动汇率制度。在固定汇率制下,中央银行预先设定一个汇率目标(或目标区域)。当由市场所决定的汇率偏离于目标值(或目标区域)时,中央银行就将在外汇市场上进行干预。这种干预通常体现为动用中央银行的外汇储备(或本国货币)来购买本国货币(或外汇)。而在浮动汇率制下,汇率完全由市场决定,中央银行对外汇市场不进行干预。

  需要说明的是,两种汇率制度将带来不同的经济后果:固定汇率制有可能使货币政策失去其传统意义上的独立性。首先,由于中央银行对外汇市场的干预在很多情况下本身也体现为一种货币供给的变化,因此,货币政策已无法单纯地被应用于调剂总需求以稳定国内物价;其次,如果执行固定汇率的国家,其资本市场也同时完全开放,则本国利率(至少是债券利率)将与国际市场的利率完全挂钩,从而进一步削弱了货币政策通过影响利率而影响国内总需求的功效。然而,在浮动汇率制下,由于汇率变化的不确定性使得国内利率与国际利率的挂钩不是很紧密,而中央银行也无需对外汇市场进行干预,因此,货币政策仍能保持其传统意义上调剂国内总需求的独立性。

  目前,大多数发达国家,如美国、日本和欧元国家等实现了资本市场的全面开放,而他们所选择的汇率制度大多为浮动汇率制度。相反地,中国及其它许多发展中国家执行的是固定汇率制度。

  就中国这样一个发展中国家而言,选择固定汇率制度似乎是不可避免的,这种选择也是博弈的结果。究其原因,要从货币政策的目标讲起。

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  就发展中国家而言,执行固定汇率制度体现了稳定汇率这一目标,然而,美国等经济大国对浮动汇率制度的选择并不意味着这些国家的货币政策目标不包括稳定汇率。首先,他们的资本市场已经完全开放,因此执行浮动汇率可以使他们享有更独立的货币政策从而更有利于国内物价的稳定;其次,他们实际上谋求的是把稳定汇率这一任务留给自己的贸易伙伴国,这就是所谓的博弈。

  就一对贸易伙伴国而言,稳定汇率的任务通常只能由其中的一个国家承担。我们以中国和美国为例。假如两个国家采取的都是固定汇率制,与此同时,它们却有着不同的汇率目标。例如,美国的中央银行(美联储)认定的汇率目标为1美元对7元人民币,而中国人民银行的汇率目标为1美元对8元人民币。则当实际的市场汇率为1美元对8元人民币时,在美国看来人民币是贬值了。为了使得人民币升值,他们必须在外汇市场上用美元购买人民币(注意美联储有无限多的美元)。而美联储的这一行为使得汇率下降,从而偏离了中国人民银行所设定的目标汇率。此时,在中国看来,人民币是过分升值了。为了使人民币汇率回归目标值,中国人民银行又必须用人民币在外汇市场上购买美元(当然,中国人民银行也有无限多的人民币)。

  由此可见,当两个国家都实行固定汇率制,而它们的汇率目标又不一致时,外汇市场上就可能出现一些异常的现象,汇率也许会永无休止地波动。因此,就一对贸易伙伴国而言,它们的中央银行不可能同时参与稳定汇率。上述分析能让我们解释为什么最近美国和日本等国即使认为人民币已过分贬值,但其中央银行仍不出来在外汇市场上进行干预,而只是通过政治和外交手段向中国政府施压,以促成人民币的升值。

  如果稳定汇率的任务只能由一个国家来承担,那么这一任务应由谁来承担呢?本人认为这应该是两个国家间搏弈的结果。首先,这将取决于谁更难承受由汇率波动而带来的风险和交易成本。在这一点上,小国显然没有优势。正因为如此,稳定汇率的任务通常由经济实力弱的小国来完成,而大国则可以充分享受浮动汇率制下独立货币政策的好处,从而更有利于国内物价稳定。这也许能为我们解释为什么在中国执行钉住美元的固定汇率制的同时,中国周边的一些小国则执行钉住人民币的固定汇率制度。与此同时,当两个国家都为大国时,搏弈的结果有可能是两个国家都执行浮动汇率制。美国、日本和欧元国家之间就是一个极好的例子。

  然而,发展中国家在与大国的这一搏弈过程中,并非完全被动,至少它们可以自主选择自己所要维持的汇率目标。那么发展中国家应维持什么样的汇率目标呢?本人认为,维持稍低于市场价值的本国货币币值是一明智的选择。

  设想,如果中央银行所选择的目标汇率低于市场所决定的汇率,这意味着本国货币是被故意升值了,为了维持这一过高的货币币值,中央银行势必经常不断地动用自己的外汇储备在外汇市场上购买本国的货币(这里我们必须注意,尽管一个国家的中央银行拥有无限多的本国货币,然而,它所拥有的外汇储备是有限的)。长此以往,中央银行的外汇储备将被掏空,从而引发金融危机。相反地,当目标汇率高于市场的均衡汇率(或本国货币被故意贬值)时,通常情况下,中央银行只需要动用本国的货币来维持其目标汇率,显然,这样一种目标是可以持久的维持着。

  此外,就发展中国家而言,维持过高的汇率而使得本国货币故意贬值也是有一定的好处。首先,其中央银行的外汇储备将有可能不断增加,而外汇储备对发展中国家而言通常是一种稀缺资源;第二,本国货币的贬值将使得发展中国家的出口增加,进口减少;第三,由于本国的原材料和人力成本与国际市场相比更为便宜,在其他条件相等的情况下,这样一种汇率政策更能吸引外商投资。当然,我们也不得不承认,这样一种汇率政策压降了本国居民的生活水平,而发达国家的居民则享受到发展中国家旅行及进口便宜商品的好处。



  人民币汇率的过去和现在

  长期以来,我国实行的是钉住美元的固定汇率制度,这意味着中国人民银行在外汇市场上维持着一个针对美元的汇率目标(或目标区域)。而人民币对其他货币的汇率则自动按美元与其他货币的市场兑换价格计算。

  中国在过去的20多年中,人民币汇率有着较大幅度的变化。这意味着中国人民银行是在不断调整着人民币的汇率目标。表(1)揭示了1979年以来人民币对美元的汇率的变化。从表中我们可以看到,人民币自1979年以来大多数时间一直处于不断贬值的状态。1979年人民币对美元的汇率为1.49,到了1994年这一汇率上升至8.44。1995年以后,汇率则逐渐平稳。目前,人民币面临着来自美国和日本等国政府所提出的升值压力。

人民币汇率的这一走势似乎在告诉我们,中国人民银行在过去的20多年中不断地摸索着人民币对美元的市场均衡汇率。这里,我们想说明的是,市场均衡汇率是不可知的,而且也有可能随着时间的变化而变化。然而,无论如何,20多年前人民币的这一汇率应该是过低了(或人民币的币值是过高了)。而为了维持这一过高的人民币币值,不仅我国的外汇储备在很长时期内得不到有效的增长,同时国家动用了非市场化的行政管制。而正是这种高度集中的行政管制才使得人民币的币值长期高于其应有的市场价值。

  长期以来,中国实行的是外汇管制。规定社会团体和企业的一切外汇收入都必须按照国家规定的汇率卖给国家银行。一切外汇支出和使用都必须经主管部门批准向国家银行购买,而这种行政管制最直接的后果是外汇价格的严重扭曲和大量黑市交易的产生。[1]

  中国外汇体制的改革与其他计划经济管理体制的改革一样,是在20世纪70年代末开始的。为了鼓励地方部门和企业积极开展对外贸易,中国于1979年实行了外汇留成制,即外汇在由国家统一管理保证重点使用的同时,可以给创汇企业一定比例的外汇留成。创汇单位对所留成的外汇拥有一定的自主权,并可参与调剂。所谓调剂就是可以将所留成外汇通过协商转让给急需外汇的企业,而其转让价格可以不按照官方汇率。这就形成了外汇价格的双轨制。显然,在外汇调剂市场所形成的外汇价格为人民币的市场均衡价格提供了有用的信息。而官方的汇率也在不断地朝着调节市场上的汇率靠拢。90年代在外汇双轨制充分发展的基础上,官方汇率已经与调节市场上的汇率十分接近。于是在1994年中国实现了汇率的并轨,即在全国形成了统一的汇率,同时也取消了外汇企业的外汇留成,并同时容许外汇企业在银行参与自由买卖外汇,实现了人民币在经常项目下的自由兑换。

  由此可见,1994年所形成的8元以上的官方汇率是有一定的市场基础,而这一汇率也基本上延续至今。

  然而,随着中国经济不断地健康发展,人民币的地位也不断地提升。这也同时意味着中国目前的汇率有可能是偏高了(或人民币币值是偏低了)。提出这一假设并不是因为美国和日本等国要求人民币升值,而更多的是因为从外汇市场上看,中国人民银行每年不断地用人民币购买着美元。在许多人看来,这已成为中国人民银行向社会发放高能量货币的主要渠道。

  然而,无论如何,正如我们所说的,人民币一定程度的贬值有它的好处:它能使中央银行更为容易地稳定汇率目标(一般情况下无须动用外汇储备)、更为容易地增加外汇储备、更为容易地促进出口、更为容易地吸引外商投资。与此同时,由于中国目前并没有完全开放资本市场,而银行的贷款利率等也并没有完全的市场化,因此在执行使人民币一定程度贬值的固定汇率政策的同时,中国人民银行也能行使其独立的货币政策。



  人民币汇率的未来挑战

  从以上的分析中我们可以看到,在金融市场(特别是资本市场)没有完全开放之前,在利率没有完全市场化之前,中国无需放弃目前的汇率政策,也无需屈服于日美等国所要求的人民币升值的压力。

  对于人民币汇率政策的真正挑战来自于中国加入WTO以后未来金融市场的全面开放,而此时银行的贷款利率等也将实现完全的市场化。这将意味着中国的利率已不可能独立于国际市场的利率。在这种情况下,任何旨在改变本国利率的货币政策都将可能因国际间金融资本的流入或流出而功亏一篑。因此,未来对于人民币汇率的挑战不在于人民币是否应该升值,而更在于人民币汇率制度的选择。

  我们是否应该仍然保持现有的固定汇率制度?或者我们应转而采取浮动汇率制度?如果我们维持现有的固定汇率制度,则是否还存在一些其他措施使得货币政策继续保持其现有的独立性?尽管本人认为,这些措施还是存在的,但其合理性仍需通过进一步的研究而得以证实。[2] 如果我们决定采用浮动汇率制,则我们不得不问:我们的国家是否已经作好了准备,以承受因汇率波动而给我们所带来挑战?




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[1] 记得当时存在着一种特别的人民币,被称为兑换券和外汇券。它是用外汇按官方汇率换成的人民币。使用兑换券,人们可以在一些特别的商店(如友谊商店等)购买一些特殊的商品。

[2] 有关这一问题更进一步的讨论,请参见本人即将出版的《中级宏观经济学》教材。

来源:中国经济研究通讯(2005年总第176期)




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